Methylphenidate

Methylphenidate (trade names Concerta, Methylin, Medikinet, Ritalin, Equasym XL, Quillivant XR) is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the phenethylamine and piperidine classes that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and narcolepsy. Methylphenidate has been studied and researched for over 50 years and has a very good efficacy and safety record for the treatment of ADHD. The original patent was owned by CIBA, now Novartis Corporation. It was first licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1955 for treating what was then known as hyperactivity. Prescribed to patients beginning in 1960, the drug became heavily prescribed in the 1990s, when the diagnosis of ADHD itself became more widely accepted.

ADHD and other similar conditions are believed to be linked to sub-performance of the dopamine and norepinephrine functions in the brain, primarily in the prefrontal cortex, responsible for self-regulatory function (e.g., inhibition, motivation, and memory) and executive function (e.g., reasoning, organizing, problem solving, and planning). Methylphenidate's mechanism of action involves the inhibition of catecholamine reuptake, primarily as a dopamine reuptake inhibitor. Methylphenidate acts by blocking the dopamine transporter and norepinephrine transporter, leading to increased concentrations of dopamine and norepinephrine within the synaptic cleft. This effect in turn leads to increased neurotransmission of dopamine and norepinephrine. Methylphenidate is also a 5HT1A receptor agonist.

Uses

Medical

MPH is a commonly prescribed psychostimulant and works by increasing the activity of the central nervous system. It produces such effects as increasing or maintaining alertness, combating fatigue, and improving attention. The short-term benefits and cost effectiveness of methylphenidate are well established. Methylphenidate is not approved for children under six years of age. Methylphenidate may also be prescribed for off-label use in treatment-resistant cases of lethargy, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and obesity.

Long-term effects

Meta-analyses and systematic reviews of magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long-term treatment with ADHD stimulants (specifically, amphetamine and methylphenidate) decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD. Moreover, reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of the long-term use of ADHD stimulants for individuals with ADHD. In particular, the continuous treatment effectiveness and safety of both amphetamine and methylphenidate have been demonstrated in controlled drug trials with durations of several years.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Methylphenidate is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The addition of behavioural modification therapy (e.g. cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)) has additional benefits on treatment outcome. People with ADHD have an increased risk of substance abuse, and stimulant medications reduce this risk. A 2010 study on methylphenidate for adult ADHD suggested that methylphenidate doesn't have the previously expected effect of improving long-term academic outcomes in these individuals.

The dosage used can vary quite significantly among individuals with some people responding to quite low doses, whereas others require a higher dose range; consequently, dosage should be titrated to an optimal level that achieves therapeutic benefit and minimal side-effects.

Mechanisms of ADHD

Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems, particularly those involving dopamine and norepinephrine. Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine may be effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems. Approximately 70% of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms. Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members, generally perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans.

Studies confirm that biological and genetic differences of the kinds predicted by low arousal theory are clearly visible in ADHD individuals, and have been confirmed both genetically and by in vivo scans of ADHD affected brains. MRI scans have revealed that people with ADHD show differences from non-ADHD individuals in brain regions important for attention regulation and control of impulsive behavior. Methylphenidate's cognitive enhancement effects have been investigated using fMRI scans even in non-ADHD brains, which revealed modulation of brain activity in ways that enhance mental focus. Methylphenidate increases activity in the prefrontal cortex and attention-related areas of the parietal cortex during challenging mental tasks. Methylphenidate also increased deactivation of default network regions during the task.

Aggression and criminality

Two studies state that methylphenidate is indicated for the treatment of ADHD in adults with a history of aggressive and criminal behavior. A large clinical study conducted in Sweden found a significant reduction of the criminality rate in males (32%) and females (42%) as compared with the rate for the same patients while not receiving medication. Some of these clinical outcomes have been confirmed in similar studies with children and adolescents.

Narcolepsy

Narcolepsy, a chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden need for sleep, is treated primarily with stimulants. Methylphenidate is considered effective in increasing wakefulness, vigilance, and performance. Methylphenidate improves measures of somnolence on standardized tests, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test, but performance does not improve to levels comparable to healthy controls.

Other

Use of stimulants such as methylphenidate in cases of treatment-resistant depression is controversial. In individuals with cancer, methylphenidate is commonly used to counteract opioid-induced somnolence, to increase the analgesic effects of opioids, to treat depression, and to improve cognitive function. Methylphenidate may be used in addition to an antidepressant for refractory major depressive disorder. It can also improve depression in several groups including stroke, cancer, and HIV-positive patients. However, benefits tend to be only partial with stimulants. Stimulants may, however, have fewer side-effects than tricyclic antidepressants in the elderly and medically ill.

Performance-enhancing

A 2015 meta-analysis of high quality evidence found that therapeutic doses of amphetamine and methylphenidate result in modest improvements in performance on working memory, episodic memory, and inhibitory control tests in normal healthy adults. Methylphenidate and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency and increase arousal. Stimulants such as amphetamine and methylphenidate can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks, and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid. Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, performance-enhancing use, rather than abuse as a recreational drug, is the primary reason that students use stimulants. Excessive doses of methylphenidate, above the therapeutic range, can interfere with working memory and cognitive control. Like amphetamine and bupropion, methylphenidate increases stamina and endurance in humans primarily through reuptake inhibition of dopamine in the central nervous system. Similar to cognition enhancement, very high doses of methylphenidate can induce side effects that impair athletic performance, such as rhabdomyolysis and hyperthermia.

Investigational

Animal studies using rats with ADHD-like behaviours were used to assess the safety of methylphenidate on the developing brain and found that psychomotor impairments, structural and functional parameters of the dopaminergic system were improved with treatment. This animal data suggests that methylphenidate supports brain development and hyperactivity in children diagnosed with ADHD. However, in normal control animals methylphenidate caused long lasting changes to the dopaminergic system suggesting that if a child is misdiagnosed with ADHD they may be at risk of long lasting adverse effects to brain development. Animal tests found that rats given methylphenidate grew up to be more stressed and emotional. It is unclear due to lack of follow-up study whether this occurs in ADHD like animals and whether it occurs in humans. However, long lasting benefits of stimulant drugs have not been found in humans.

Side effects

Some adverse effects may emerge during chronic use of methylphenidate so a constant watch for adverse effects is recommended. The adverse effects of methylphenidate include:

Recent large-scale studies by the US FDA indicate that, in children, young adults, and adults, there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, myocardial infarction, and stroke) and the medical use of amphetamine, methylphenidate, or other commonly prescribed ADHD stimulants.

On occasion, stimulant psychosis can occur during long-term therapy with methylphenidate. Regular psychiatric monitoring of people who are taking methylphenidate for adverse effects such as psychotic symptomatology has been recommended.

Addiction and dependence

Although possible, addiction and psychological dependence are rare with methylphenidate. Methylphenidate has shown some benefits as a replacement therapy for individuals who are addicted to and dependent upon methamphetamine. Methylphenidate and amphetamine have been investigated as a chemical replacement for the treatment of cocaine addiction in the same way that methadone is used as a replacement drug for physical dependence upon heroin. Its effectiveness in treatment of cocaine or psychostimulant addiction or psychological dependence has not been proven and further research is needed.

Overdose

In the majority of unremarkable isolated cases methylphenidate overdose is asymptomatic or only incurs minor symptoms even in children under six years of age. Normally any reaction will show within three hours. However, injection (particularly arterial) has sometimes led to toxic necrosis and amputation at the point of injection. Emergency treatment is recommended beyond certain overdose levels, in cases of attempted suicide, and in those using monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).

Precautions

Interactions

Intake of adrenergic agonist drugs or pemoline with methylphenidate increases the risk of liver toxicity.

When methylphenidate is coingested with ethanol, a metabolite called ethylphenidate is formed via hepatic transesterification, not unlike the hepatic formation of cocaethylene from cocaine and alcohol. The reduced potency of ethylyphenidate and its minor formation means it does not contribute to the pharmacological profile at therapeutic doses and even in overdose cases ethylphenidate concentrations remain negligible.

Coingestion of alcohol (ethanol) also increases the blood plasma levels of d-methylphenidate by up to 40%.

Contraindications

Methylphenidate is contraindicated by the United States Food and Drug Administration for individuals using monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine and tranylcypromine), or individuals suffering from agitation, tics, or glaucoma, or a hypersensitivity to any ingredients contained in methylphenidate pharmaceuticals.

Pregnancy

The U.S. FDA gives methylphenidate a pregnancy category of C, and women are advised to only use the drug if the benefits outweigh the potential risks. Not enough animal and human studies have been conducted to conclusively demonstrate an effect of methylphenidate on fetal development. In 2007, empirical literature included 63 cases of prenatal exposure to methylphenidate across three empirical studies. One of these studies (N = 11) demonstrated no significant increases in malformations. A second (N = 13) demonstrated one major malformation in newborns with early exposure to methylphenidate, which was in the expected range of malformations. However, this was a cardiac malformation, which was not within the statistically expected range. Finally, in a retrospective analysis of patients' medical charts (N = 38), researchers examined the relationship between abuse of intravenous methylphenidate and pentazocine in pregnant women. Twenty-one percent of these children were born prematurely, and several had stunted growth and withdrawal symptoms (31% and 28%, respectively). Intravenous methylphenidate abuse was confounded with the concurrent use of other substances (e.g., cigarettes, alcohol) during pregnancy.

Overdose and toxicology

In the majority of unremarkable isolated cases MPH overdose is asymptomatic (symptomless) or only incurs minor symptoms even in children under age 6. In cases that manifest symptoms, these can typically include agitation, hallucinations, psychosis, lethargy, seizures, tachycardia, dysrhythmias, hypertension, and hyperthermia. LD50 in mice is 190 mg/kg.

Studies of reported incidents tend to show that most overdoses are unintentional and generally conclude that severe or major toxicity are comparatively rare events (none in the Michigan study of 289 incidents, 0.9% in the 2004 US national analysis with n=8336, and 0.2% in the same analysis for 2010 with n=6503).

Death rates are also comparatively low (none in the Michigan study, 0.36 per 1000 with n=3 for the 2004 US national analysis, 0.15 per 1000 with n=1 for the 2010 analysis; the US national guideline approved 2007 also notes only 2 deaths reported as primarily to MPH overdose from 2000â€"2005).

A 2008 review generally agreed with these findings but noted recreation or study use was "fairly common" in US university studies and that the risk could only be said to be low "in the short term" since there was little certainty about long term effects of overdose and abuse. A 2011 Swiss study also agreed with the general findings, adding a cautionary note that serious or severe outcomes such as necrosis, abscess and amputation had occurred as a result of severe toxicity at the injection site in 3 cases of abuse via arterial injection.

Medical and emergency handling

Key recommendations in US guidelines for overdose handling include:

• Well evidenced findings (evidence standard "A"): 0â€"6 years: <2 mg/kg rarely causes serious toxicity, 0â€"5 years: up to 40 mg well tolerated, 6â€"12 years: up to 80 mg well tolerated;
• Evidence grade "B" and "C": If <6 years and >2 mg/kg, or <60 kg and >1 mg/kg, or ≥60 kg and >60 mg: refer to emergency help;
• Tentative only (D): 4 mg/kg or 120 mg of intact modified (slow) release version: refer to emergency help.
• Symptoms (D): "Patients experiencing any changes in behavior other than mild stimulation or agitation should be referred to an emergency department. Examples of moderate to severe symptoms that warrant referral include moderate-to-severe agitation, hallucinations, abnormal muscle movements, headache, chest pain, loss of consciousness, or convulsions".
• Other factors: Cases of intent, malicious administration (by another), as well as monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) users should always be referred to emergency help;
• Passage of time/delay: Patients where more than 3 hours have passed without symptoms do not usually need referral to emergency help.
• Benzodiazepines may be used as treatment if agitation, dystonia, or convulsions are present.

Poison control center analyses and study findings

A study in 2000 looked in detail at all 289 overdoses of MPH reported to the Children's Hospital of Michigan regional poison control center during 1993 and 1994 (excluded: 105 extended-release formulations or co-ingestants, to ensure MPH overdose effects were not confounded by other effects). The case histories were: Age: 251 aged under 18, 38 adult; Reason: 68 (23%) intentional/unknown/error. In 163 cases (56%) the dose was known and in 41% the patient's own MPH was involved. Variation in overdose ranged from <1 mg/kg (30%) to >3 mg/kg (7.5%) mean 1.7 mg/kg. Findings:

• No patient developed "severe" symptoms, but "less favourable" symptoms were seen with intentional overdoses. In overdoses below 2 mg/kg the majority (63â€"75%) suffered no effect and a minority (9â€"16%) suffered a moderate effect. Above 3 mg/kg around 27% suffered a moderate effect. Overall symptoms occurred in 31% of all overdoses. In paediatric exposures 29% developed symptoms but 66% suffered no clinical effects (mild/moderate effects: 34%). Symptomatic findings were:

• "Intentional ingestion of MPH was most commonly associated with isolated symptoms of tachycardia, agitation, lethargy, vomiting, dizziness, mydriasis, and tremor. Of the 8 patients in this group who manifested multiple symptoms, erythema, diaphoresis, hypertension, emesis, chest pain, tremor, fever, and insomnia"

• Symptoms were common (33%) in the 0â€"5 age group: "Isolated lethargy, agitation, headache, and vomiting were most commonly seen. One patient in this group developed dystonia, and two developed agitation in combination with hypertension or tachycardia."

In 2004, the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System annual report showed about 8300 methylphenidate ingestions reported in US poison center data, of which 72% were accidental or unintended, and 19% involved children age 0â€"6. The most common reasons for intentional exposure were drug abuse and suicide attempts. The 2010 report showed 6500 single reported exposures in the US for the year. 2010 incidents:

• By age: 0â€"5: 24%, 6â€"12: 38%, 13â€"19:21%, 20+: 16%, other adult: 1%.
• By cause: accident/error: 79%, intended: 18%, other: 3%.
• By outcome: moderate: 624, major:13, death:1, others were no outcome, minor, or unknown. (2004 outcomes: moderate: 940, major: 73, death: 3)

A Swiss study in 2011 also concurred, noting similar findings in several studies and national analyses in that country, but noted that these findings were potentially inapplicable to the few cases of abuse via crushed MPH injection, which was the sole situation where "serious" or "severe" local toxicity was observed, leading in their study to pain, necrosis and partial limb or digit amputation in two of 14 adult cases over 8 years (14%) who mistakenly injected arterially, and inguinal abscess and fever in one who injected intravenously.

Abuse potential

Methylphenidate has some potential for abuse due to its action on dopamine transporters. Methylphenidate, like other stimulants, increases dopamine levels in the brain, but at therapeutic doses this increase is slow, and thus euphoria only rarely occurs even when it is administered intravenously. The abuse and addiction potential of methylphenidate is therefore significantly lower than that of other dopaminergic stimulants. The abuse potential is increased when methylphenidate is crushed and insufflated (snorted), or injected. However, the dose that produces euphoric effects varies among individuals. The primary source of methylphenidate for abuse is diversion from legitimate prescriptions, rather than illicit synthesis. Those who use methylphenidate medicinally generally take it orally, while intranasal and intravenous are the preferred means for recreational use. IV users tend to be adults whose use may cause panlobular pulmonary emphysema.

Abuse of prescription stimulants is higher amongst college students than non-college attending young adults. College students use methylphenidate either as a study aid or to stay awake longer. Increased alcohol consumption due to stimulant misuse has additional negative effects on health.

Recreational users may crush the tablets and insufflate the powder This method will increase bioavailability and produce a much more rapid onset of effects than when taken orally; however the overall duration of action tends to be decreased by any non-oral use of drug preparations made for oral use.

Methylphenidate is sometimes used by students to enhance their mental abilities, improving their concentration and helping them to study. John Harris, an expert in bioethics, has said that it would be unethical to stop healthy people taking the drug. He also argues that it would be "not rational" and against human enhancement to not use the drug to improve people's cognitive abilities. Anjan Chatterjee however has warned that there is a high potential for abuse and may cause serious adverse effects on the heart, meaning that only people with an illness should take the drug. In the British Medical Journal he wrote that it was premature to endorse the use of Ritalin in this way as the effects of the drug on healthy people have not been studied. Barbara Sahakian has argued that the use of Ritalin in this way may give students an unfair advantage in examinations and that as a result universities may want to discuss making students give urine samples to be tested for the drug.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Methylphenidate primarily acts as a dopamine-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (DNRI). It is a benzylpiperidine and phenethylamine derivative which also shares part of its basic structure with catecholamines.

Methylphenidate is most active at modulating levels of dopamine and to a lesser extent norepinephrine. Methylphenidate binds to and blocks dopamine transporters and norepinephrine transporters.

While both amphetamine and methylphenidate are dopaminergic, it should be noted that their methods of action are distinct. Specifically, methylphenidate is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor while amphetamine is both a releasing agent and reuptake inhibitor of dopamine and norepinephrine. Each of these drugs has a corresponding effect on norepinephrine which is weaker than its effect on dopamine. Methylphenidate's mechanism of action at dopamine-norepinephrine release is still debated, but is fundamentally different from most other phenethylamine derivatives, as methylphenidate is thought to increase general firing rate, whereas amphetamine reduces firing rate and reverses the flow of the monoamines via TAAR1 activation.

Methylphenidate has both dopamine transporter and norepinephrine transporter binding affinity, with the dextromethylphenidate enantiomers displaying a prominent affinity for the norepinephrine transporter. Both the dextrorotary and levorotary enantiomers displayed receptor affinity for the serotonergic 5HT_1A and 5HT_2B subtypes, though direct binding to the serotonin transporter was not observed. A later study confirmed the d-threo- enantiomer binding to the 5HT_1A receptor, but no significant activity on the 5HT_2B receptor was found.

Methylphenidate may protect neurons from the neurotoxic effects of Parkinson's disease and methamphetamine abuse.

The dextrorotary enantiomers are significantly more potent than the levorotary enantiomers, and some medications therefore only contain dexmethylphenidate.

Methylphenidate has been identified as a sigma-1 receptor agonist.

Binding profile of methylphenidate

Pharmacokinetics

Methylphenidate taken orally has a bioavailability of 11â€"52% with a duration of peak action around 2â€"4 hours for instant release (i.e. Ritalin), 3â€"8 hours for sustained release (i.e. Ritalin SR), and 8â€"12 hours for extended release (i.e. Concerta). The half-life of methylphenidate is 2â€"3 hours, depending on the individual. The peak plasma time is achieved at about 2 hours.

d-Methylphenidate is much more bioavailable than l-methylphenidate when administered orally, and is primarily responsible for the psychoactivity of racemic methylphenidate.

Contrary to the expectation, taking methylphenidate with a meal speeds absorption.

Detection in biological fluids

The concentration of methylphenidate or ritalinic acid, its major metabolite, may be quantified in plasma, serum or whole blood in order to monitor compliance in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage.

Chemistry

Four isomers of methylphenidate are known to exist. One pair of threo isomers and one pair of erythro are distinguished, from which only d-threo-methylphenidate exhibits the pharmacologically usually desired effects. When the drug was first introduced it was sold as a 3:1 mixture of erythro:threo diastereomers. The erythro diastereomers are also pressor amines. "TMP" is referring only to the threo product that does not contain any erythro diastereomers. Since the threo isomers are energetically favored, it is easy to epimerize out any of the undesired erythro isomers. The drug that contains only dextrorotary methylphenidate is called d-TMP. A review on the synthesis of enantiomerically pure (2R,2'R)-(+)-threo-methylphenidate hydrochloride has been published.

Production and brand-names

Methylphenidate is produced in the United States, Mexico, Spain, Sweden, Pakistan, and India. Ritalin is also sold in Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Spain, Germany and other European countries (although in much lower volumes than in the United States). Other brands include Concerta, Methylin, and Daytrana, and generic forms, including Methylin,Metadate, Phenida and Attenta are produced by numerous pharmaceutical companies throughout the world. In Belgium the product is sold under the name Rilatine and in Brazil, Portugal and Argentina as Ritalina. In Thailand, it is found under the name Hynidate. In India, it is found under the names Addwize and Inspiral SR.

The dextrorotary enantiomer of methylphenidate, known as dexmethylphenidate, is sold as a generic and under the brand names Focalin and Attenade.

Available forms

Methylphenidate is available in numerous forms, a doctor will prescribe the appropriate method based on patient feedback and product availability. Current available forms are tablet, capsule, adhesive-based matrix transdermal system (patch), and oral suspension (liquid syrup).

Immediate-release

A formulation by the Novartis trademark name Ritalin, is an immediate-release racemic mixture, although a variety of formulations and generic brand names exist. Generic brand names include Ritalina, Rilatine, Attenta, Medikinet, Metadate, Methylin, Penid, Tranquilyn and Rubifen. Focalin is a preparation containing only dextro-methylphenidate, rather than the usual racemic dextro- and levo-methylphenidate mixture of other formulations.

Extended-release

Extended-release tablets, capsules and liquid suspension include:

• Concerta (brand-name); Watson methylphenidate ER (US generic); Teva-Methylphenidate ERâ€'C (Canadian generic). Each pill is effective for 12 hours.
• Equasym XL; Medikinet XL; Metadate CD; Ritalin LA; Rubifen SR. Some of these work identically to each other; some do not.
• Ritalinâ€'SR (brand-name); Methylin ER (US generic); Metadate ER (US generic); methylphenidate SR (Canadian generic). Each pill is effective for 5â€"8 hours.

A newer way of taking methylphenidate is by using a transdermal patch (under the brand name Daytrana), similar to those used for nicotine replacement therapy.

Concerta tablets are marked with the letters "ALZA" and followed by: "18", "27", "36", or "54", relating to the mg dosage strength. Approximately 22% of the dose is immediate release, and the remaining 78% of the dose is released over 10â€"12 hours post ingestion, with an initial increase over the first 6 to 7 hours, and subsequent decline in released drug.

Ritalin LA capsules are marked with the letters "NVR" (abbrev.: Novartis) and followed by: "R20", "R30", or "R40", depending on the (mg) dosage strength. Both Ritalin LA and Equasym XL provide two standard doses â€" half the total dose being released immediately and the other half released four hours later. In total, each capsule is effective for about eight hours.

Metadate CD capsules contain two types of beads; 30% of the beads are immediate release, and the other 70% of the beads are evenly sustained release.

Quillivant XR (brand name) is an extended-release oral suspension (after reconstitution with water): 25 mg per 5 mL (5 mg per mL). It was designed and is patented and made by Pfizer. The medication comes in various sizes from 60ml to 180ml (after reconstitution). Each bottle is shipped with the medication in powder form containing roughly 20% instant-release and 80% extended-release methylphenidate, to which water must be added by the pharmacist in an amount corresponding with the total intended volume of the bottle. The bottle must be shaken vigorously for ten seconds prior to administration via included oral syringe to ensure proper ratio.

History, society, and culture

Methylphenidate was first synthesized in 1944, and was identified as a stimulant in 1954.

Methylphenidate was synthesized by Ciba (now Novartis) chemist Leandro Panizzon. His wife, Marguerite, had low blood pressure and would take the drug as a stimulant before playing tennis. He named the substance Ritaline, after his wife's nickname, Rita.

Originally it was marketed as a mixture of two racemates, 80% (±)-erythro and 20% (±)-threo. Subsequent studies of the racemates showed that the central stimulant activity is associated with the threo racemate and were focused on the separation and interconversion of the erythro isomer into the more active threo isomer.

Methylphenidate was first used to allay barbiturate-induced coma, and was later used to treat memory deficits in the elderly. Beginning in the 1960s, it was used to treat children with ADHD or ADD, known at the time as hyperactivity or minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) based on earlier work starting with the studies by American psychiatrist Charles Bradley on the use of psychostimulant drugs, such as benzedrine, with then called "maladjusted children". Production and prescription of methylphenidate rose significantly in the 1990s, especially in the United States, as the ADHD diagnosis came to be better understood and more generally accepted within the medical and mental health communities.

In 2000 Janssen received U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval to market "Concerta", an extended-release form of Ritalin. See the "Extended-release" section of this article, above, for more information about Concerta.

Legal status

• Internationally, methylphenidate is a Schedule II drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
• In the United States, methylphenidate is classified as a Schedule II controlled substance, the designation used for substances that have a recognized medical value but present a high potential for abuse.
• In the United Kingdom, methylphenidate is a controlled 'Class B' substance. Possession without prescription carries with a sentence up to 5 years and/or an unlimited fine, and supplying it is 14 years and/or an unlimited fine.
• In Canada, methylphenidate is listed in Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (along with LSD, psychedelic mushrooms, and mescaline, among others), and is illegal to possess without a prescription, pursuant to Part G (section G.01.002) of the Food and Drug Regulations under the Food and Drugs Act.
• In New Zealand, methylphenidate is a 'class B2 controlled substance'. Unlawful possession is punishable by six-month prison sentence and distribution of it is punishable by a 14-year sentence.
• In Australia, methylphenidate is a 'Schedule 8' controlled substance. Such drugs must be kept in a lockable safe before being handed out and possession without prescription carries hefty fines and even imprisonment.
• In Sweden, methylphenidate is a List II controlled substance with recognized medical value. Possession without a prescription is punishable by up to three years in prison.
• In France, methylphenidate is covered by the "narcotics" schedule, prescription and distribution conditions are restricted with hospital-only prescription for the initial treatment and yearly consultations.

Controversy

Methylphenidate has been the subject of controversy in relation to its use in the treatment of ADHD. One such criticism is prescribing psychostimulants medication to children to reduce ADHD symptoms. The contention that methylphenidate acts as a gateway drug has been discredited by multiple sources, according to which abuse is statistically very low and "stimulant therapy in childhood does not increase the risk for subsequent drug and alcohol abuse disorders later in life".

Treatment of ADHD by way of Methylphenidate has led to legal actions including malpractice suits regarding informed consent, inadequate information on side effects, misdiagnosis, and coercive use of medications by school systems. In the U.S. and the United Kingdom, it is approved for use in children and adolescents. In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration approved the use of methylphenidate in 2008 for use in treating adult ADHD. In the United Kingdom, while not licensed for use in Adult ADHD, NICE guidelines suggest it be prescribed off-license for the condition. Methylphenidate has been approved for adult use in the treatment of narcolepsy.

The pharmacological effects of methylphenidate resemble those of the class of DNRIs, which is useful in the treatment of ADHD. Shortages of Ritalin in 2011 have been blamed on overmedication.

A study found that ADHD medication was not associated with increased risk of cigarette use, and in fact stimulant treatments such as Ritalin seemed to lower this risk.

Notes

1. ^ This involves impaired dopamine neurotransmission in the mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways and norepinephrine neurotransmission in the prefrontal cortex and locus coeruleus.

See also

• Pethidine

References

External links

• Methylphenidate at DMOZ
• Department of Energy September 29, 1998 press release on Ritalin at Brookhaven National Laboratory
• Erowid methylphenidate vault
• U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal â€" Methylphenidate